|
In thermodynamics, the internal energy of a system is energy contained within the system, excluding the kinetic energy of motion of the system as a whole and the potential energy of the system as a whole due to external force fields. It keeps account of the gains and losses of energy of the system that are due to changes in its internal state.〔Crawford, F. H. (1963), pp. 106–107.〕〔Haase, R. (1971), pp. 24–28.〕 The internal energy of a system can be changed by transfers: (1) as heat, (2) as work, or (3) with matter.〔Born, M. (1949), Appendix 8, (pp. 146–149 ).〕 When matter transfer is prevented by impermeable containing walls, the system is said to be closed. Then the first law of thermodynamics states that the increase in internal energy is equal to the total heat added plus the work done on the system by its surroundings. If the containing walls pass neither matter nor energy, the system is said to be isolated. Then its internal energy cannot change. In a sense, the first law of thermodynamics may be regarded as establishing the existence of the internal energy. The internal energy is one of the two cardinal state functions of the state variables of a thermodynamic system. ==Introduction== The internal energy of a given state of a system cannot be directly measured. It is determined through some convenient chain of thermodynamic operations and thermodynamic processes by which the given state can be prepared, starting with a reference state which is customarily assigned a reference value for its internal energy. Such a chain, or path, can be theoretically described by certain extensive state variables of the system, namely, its entropy, , its volume, , and its mole numbers, }. The internal energy, , is a function of those. Sometimes, to that list are appended other extensive state variables, for example electric dipole moment. For practical considerations in thermodynamics and engineering it is rarely necessary or convenient to consider all energies belonging to the total intrinsic energy of a system, such as the energy given by the equivalence of mass. Customarily, thermodynamic descriptions include only items relevant to the processes under study. Thermodynamics is chiefly concerned only with ''changes'' in the internal energy, not with its absolute value. The internal energy is a state function of a system, because its value depends only on the current state of the system and not on the path taken or processes undergone to prepare it. It is an extensive quantity. It is the one and only ''cardinal'' thermodynamic potential.〔 Through it, by use of Legendre transforms, are mathematically constructed the other thermodynamic potentials. These are functions of variable lists in which some extensive variables are replaced by their conjugate intensive variables. Legendre transformation is necessary because mere substitutive replacement of extensive variables by intensive variables does not lead to thermodynamic potentials. Mere substitution leads to a less informative formula, an equation of state. Though it is a macroscopic quantity, internal energy can be explained in microscopic terms by two theoretical virtual components. One is the microscopic kinetic energy due to the microscopic motion of the system's particles (translations, rotations, vibrations). The other is the potential energy associated with the microscopic forces, including the chemical bonds, between the particles; this is for ordinary physics and chemistry. If thermonuclear reactions are specified as a topic of concern, then the static rest mass energy of the constituents of matter is also counted. There is no simple universal relation between these quantities of microscopic energy and the quantities of energy gained or lost by the system in work, heat, or matter transfer. The SI unit of energy is the joule (J). Sometimes it is convenient to use a corresponding density called ''specific internal energy'' which is internal energy per unit of mass (kilogram) of the system in question. The SI unit of specific internal energy is J/kg. If the specific internal energy is expressed relative to units of amount of substance (mol), then it is referred to as ''molar internal energy'' and the unit is J/mol. From the standpoint of statistical mechanics, the internal energy is equal to the ensemble average of the sum of the microscopic kinetic and potential energies of the system. 抄文引用元・出典: フリー百科事典『 ウィキペディア（Wikipedia）』 ■ウィキペディアで「internal energy」の詳細全文を読む スポンサード リンク
|